Bectu Ratecard for Sound Recordists

BECTU have kindly updated their ratecard for freelancers working in Broadcast. This is a good guide to the daily rate freelancers like myself can expect for their work. I hope that the fact that the ratecard was published on April 1st is not an ominous sign, although the lack of adjustment to rates over the last 20 years might suggest otherwise.

Anyway, I don’t publish my daily rate on this site as a matter of courtesy, however maybe it would be a helpful guide for some if I reproduce the relevant section below…

‘FREELANCE RATE-CARD for FACTUAL TV PROGRAMMES

APRIL 2009

Going rates for a 10-hour day

SOUND DEPT.
Sound Recordist £319 (inc holiday pay)
(£285) (exc holiday pay)

OVERTIME

BECTU believes that overtime should be paid at a premium rate. The
most common overtime rate is 1.5T. ‘

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Sound Recordist Notes - Microphone Types

Microphones
A microphone is a transducer that converts acoustical sound energy into electrical sound energy.
The three most common types are;
* Dynamic (or moving coil) microphone.
* Ribbon microphone.
* Condenser (or capacitor) microphone.

The Dynamic (Moving Coil) Microphone
* Robust.
* Widely used in the sound reinforcement industry (particularly suitable for hand-held use).
* Usually fitted with wind shields (bulbous, foam filled wire mesh which attenuates wind noise and ‘p-blasting’ from the vocalist’s mouth).
* Often provided with built-in bass attenuation to compensate for the ‘proximity effect’ (or bass tip-up, an effect of directional microphones when sound sources have their bass frequencies boosted when they are close to the microphone).
* The design produces a ‘peak’ in the upper-mid frequency range (around 5 kHz) and a rapid fall-off in response above 8 or 10 kHz; this means the sound quality is restricted compared to other mic types.

Dynamic Capsule
Used for;
* Vocals; the boosted upper-mid frequencies help to improve intelligibility.
* Drums; dynamic mics can withstand high sound pressure levels (SPL’s), which might damage other mic types.
* Guitar Amplifiers; amps can also benefit from the ‘presence’ lift caused by the upper-mid frequency boost.
Typical dynamic designs include Shure’s SM57 and SM58.

The Ribbon Microphone
* At best, is capable of very high-quality results.
* Can record frequencies between around 40 Hz to around 14 kHz.
* Smooth frequency response (frequencies are recorded without the microphone boosting or cutting them).
* Delicate; can be physically quite large; the larger the ribbon, the larger the area to pick up sound waves and, therefore, the greater the electrical output .
Used for - Acoustic instruments, classical ensembles.

The Condenser (Capacitor) Microphone
* The diaphragm can be very thin and light (a few microns thick) and so has less inertia. This means that the diaphragm can respond to higher frequencies more effectively than the dynamic microphone.
* The typical frequency range is around 12 Hz to 20 kHz, but can exceed the range of human hearing at both the high and low ends of the spectrum.
* Due to the microphone’s preamplifier, condenser mics offer the best noise performance and the highest sensitivity of any studio microphone.
* Can be made with virtually any response pattern.
* Robust enough to handle many studio and live applications.
* Needs powering, either by a battery or phantom powering via a desk.
* Cannot handle high SPL’s, unlike the dynamic type.

Used for;
* Any instrument where high frequency response is required (for example, cymbals or acoustic instruments).
* Vocals.
Designs such as the small diaphragm AKG C1000S and the large diaphragm Neumann U87 are typical condensers.
Mic & Line Levels
Mic level is -56 to -40 dbm. Mic outputs are normally quite low; around a millivolt (1 mV) and is the typical output directly from a microphone. You need a preamp to amplify a microphone to line level – eg a mixer.
Line Level
Nominal level of around 1 volt - around 60 dB higher than mic level. Commonly used as the output level of a mixer – remember this when setting camera audio input levels.

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Careers in Sound - Sound Mixer

There are many different roles to fill in Sound for Film and TV, so here is a brief explanation of some of them;

Sound Mixer

This is usually the title given to the person who sits at a sound desk/trolley on a film or tv set, and presses the record button and moves the faders, and is generally in charge of the sound team; often a 2 or 3 person team (comprised of sound mixer, boom operator/sound maintenance and sound assistant/second boom). A sound mixer is different to a sound recordist; both have the primary function of recording high quality location sound, but a mixer is often more likely to concentrate on the recording and mixing aspect of the sound acquired on set by the boom operator, as well assume overall responsibility for the sound team. Mixers may also be involved in pre-production planning aspects of the sound such as radio mics concealed in costumes or location choices.

Sound mixers will often work from a trolley - this is because the trolley allows them to have equipment such as a flatbed mixer and recording device attached at a comfortbale height to work at, in a portable system. They will often be working with many channels of sound from separate sources, and so mixing them into a form that is useful to the post production audio process is vital. Sound quality is paramount, but if you can mix 8 different actors mics down into 2 channels of neat, smoothly faded sound then it is a great help to the audio process. It is also great fun - one of my favourite bits of the job. I enjoy the satisfaction of following a scene and managing to seamlessly shape the dialogue to the flow of the action. Sound mixers will often own their own kit, including the mixer, mics, recording device etc and hire themselves and their kit to a production, as well as bringing along their own staff.

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Careers In Sound - Dubbing Mixer | Re-Recording Mixer

Dubbing Mixer/Re-recording Mixer

Dubbing Mixers (also known as re-recording mixers - an americanism maybe?) work with all the sound elements; dialogue, automated dialogue replacement (ADR), foley, sound fx, atmospheres and music  to create the final soundtrack. They are primarily responsible for ensuring that film sound is correct both technically and stylistically.

Balancing levels and blending a variety of sounds requires skill and a technical knowledge of sound and how to manipulate it.  Good dubbing mixers can often save a film that has bad location sound. Dubbing mixers may also work as sound designers to ensure a consistency of the sound and to save on budgets!

Dubbing/re-recording Mixers like most other sound roles often work on a freelance basis. They work extremely long hours under considerable pressure, and usually work on both film and television drama productions. They work in at large mixing consoles, mixing and smoothing out (cross fading) the sound, often adding a temporary music soundtrack prepared by the music editor. Dubbing mixers must be able to work quickly, to extremely high standards.

Today soundtracks are often mixed in many languages and surround sound industry standard. This process can take between 2 and 12 weeks depending on each film’s scale and budget, and so dubbing mixers are often still working in the final days of a films post-production. They also spent so much time inside that their skin is almost clear, their eyes enlarged, and they are able to survive for long periods on nothing but coffee and Miso soup.

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Careers In Sound - Sound Editor

Sound Editor

A sound editor is responsible for selecting and assembling sound recordings in preparation for the final sound mix or dub. They cut, mix and fade dialogue, music and effects to create a consistent overall sound. Sound editors often specialize in only one of these areas, and some productions will have separate dialogue, effects, and music editors. In smaller productions sound editors are expected to know how to handle it all, often crossing over into dubbing mixing as well.

Dialogue editing is where the editor takes the original sound recorded on the set by the sound recordist, or location sound mixer and boom op, and using a variety of techniques ensures the dialogue is understandable, as well as smoother, so the listener doesn’t hear the transitions from shot to shot (often the background sounds underneath the words change dramatically from shot to shot. This used to be done in analogue by chopping up quater iinch tape, and splicing it back together as needed, but is largely done on digital non-linear software packages such as Pro-tools, Logic and Nuendo.

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Careers In Sound - Sound Recordist

Sound Recordist

A sound recordist is usually the person responsible for all aspects of sound in small crews, such as documentary and current affairs. They will usually carry a bag containing a location mixer, radio mics, external recording device such as DAT or hard disc recorder, toothpicks, batteries, several pieces of fruit, and a small notepad for drawing pictures of other crew member during particularly boring takes. Sound recordists usually work on their own as befits a smaller crew and so have responsibility/control over most aspects of the sound acquisition. The primary role of the sound recordist is to record appropriate sound for picture and the final film, to a high standard and free from unwanted noise. This might sound relatively straightforward, but in reality this means battling the madness of location managers and directors who want to film in the outside lane of the M25 or the centre of a V8 engine, or inconsiderate airlines that insist on continually flying over your shoot causing the rest of the crew to stare impatiently at you until you say ‘i think it’s ok now’ before the next one arrives precisely 1min 33 secs later. This is why all television filmed in London is restricted to takes of no more than 90 secs. Ahem.

This is my primary role in Sound. When working as a sound recordist i spend an awful lot of time turning off peoples fridges and computers to remove hum, bribing workmen to halt their drilling for 10 mins, and generally asking people to stop making the noise they are often required to make as part of their jobs, in order for me to film a man talking at a camera. That may be simplifying it somewhat, but controlling unwanted background sounds is often the most challenging aspect of the job.

In the age of video i often end up recording directly to tape, which requires a connection to the camera. This can be 2 x xlr cables, a hirose cable or a wireless link depending on your finances, but the former often involve being dragged around by a camera operator, and getting glared at when you don’t move fast enough, and the latter involves panicking madly when you realise no sound is actually being sent to the camera as MI6 are supressing all radio waves in your area (see filming near the MI6 building…). Sometimes however it is necessary to record on an external source such as DAT or a hard disc recorder, for example when shooting on film. This requires the sound recordist to ensure that the sound and picture are able to be easily synced by the editor in post production. This is achieved either through use of a sync clap, or timecode. If timecode IS the format of choice then the sound recordist usually sets this up, as jam-syncing timecode between two or more devices is often beyond/beneath the understanding of camera ops who are far too busy measuring photons with their clever little light meters

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Careers In Sound - Sound Engineer

Sound Engineer

Sound engineers are often the people who sit behind the glass in record studios - recording music usually. They record in controllable studio environments and are responsible for producing as high quality a recording as possible. I don’t know so much about this branch of sound, but the ignoramus’s friend - Wikipedia makes this note about subdivisions of sound engineers which is probably worth repeating:

There are four distinct steps to commercial production of a recording. Recording, editing, mixing, and mastering. Typically, each is performed by a sound engineer who specializes only in that part of production.

• Studio engineer could be either a sound engineer working in a studio together with a producer, or a producing sound engineer working in a studio.
• Recording engineer is a person who records sound.
• Mixing Engineer is a person who creates mixes of multi-track recordings. It is not uncommon for a commercial record to be recorded at one studio and later mixed by different engineers in other studios.
• Mastering Engineer is typically the person who mixes the final stereo tracks(or sometimes just a few tracks or stems) that the mix engineer produces . The mastering engineer makes any final adjustments to the overall sound of the record in the final step before commercial duplication. Mastering engineers use principles of equalization and compression to affect the coloration of the sound.
• Game audio designer engineer is a person who deals with sound aspects of game development.
• Live sound engineer is a person dealing withlive sound reinforcement. This usually includes planning and installation of speakers, cabling and equipment and mixing sound during the show.
• Foldback or monitor engineer is a person running foldback sound during a live event. The term “foldback” is outdated and refers to the practice of folding back audio signals from the FOH (Front of House) mixing console to the stage in order for musicians to hear themselves while performing. Monitor engineers usually have a separate audio system from the FOH engineer and manipulate audio signals independently from what the audience hears, in order to satisfy the requirements of each performer on stage. In-ear systems, digital and analog mixing consoles, and a variety of speaker enclosures are typically used by monitor engineers. In addition most monitor engineers must be familiar with wireless or RF (radio-frequency) equipment and must interface personally with the artist(s) during each performance.
• Systems engineer is a person responsible for the design setup of modern PA systems which are often very complex. A systems engineer is usually also referred to as a “crew chief” on tour and is responsible for the performance and day-to-day job requirements of the audio crew as a whole along with the FOH audio system.
• Audio post engineer is a person who edits and mixes audio for film and television

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Careers In Sound - Sound Assistant

Sound Assistant/Second Boom

You are the monkey on set who makes the tea and coils the cables for the rest of the sound crew. You might get the opportunity to do some second boom work, particularly during dialogue scenes where a dual track of both sides of a conversation are useful to the sound post team. But mostly you will make tea. And stand there. And stand there. And stare. And ponder how when you are the sound mixer you will enjoy watching the sound assistant stand there. and stare.And then do whtever the mixer or boom op need you to do. Well, within reason, depending on how eager you are to progress.

No, it’s the first foot on the ladder, and a very necessary one. You learn how to behave on a set, how the processes work, how to make tea, how to stand still for long periods while the camera team setup, and other useful things.

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Careers In Sound - Boom Operator

Boom Operator/Sound Maintenance

A boom operator is the person who waves the microphone on the end of a pole around on a set to acquire sound. I say wave, but it is a little more refined than that - good boom operators can make a sound mixers life an easier and more successful one purely by dint of being good at what they do.  Moving a microphone around a set filled with lights and cameras and reflective surfaces, whilst remaining unseen, unheard and crucially while keeping a consistency of sound perspective and axis is, shall we say, a bit tricky at times.

The life of a boom op can be a hard one - many other departments on set get a generous amount of time - camera to set the shot, and lay the track, dop and gaffer to light the scene, actors to learn lines, directors to decide on where to have lunch. The boom op has to wait for them all to frame up to find the edge of frame, see the actors rehearse the scene to be sure of lines and positioning when speaking, wait for a final decision on lighting to check for shadows and reflections. All of this whilst enduring a barrage of comment from aformentioned departments along the lines of ‘Why can you see lightning before you hear thunder? Because even God had to wait for Sound! hahahahah…etc’ as you desperately try and do all these things in the 8 secs you have before turning over.

But there are advantages to being the boom operator; you are right in the heart of the action on set - often the closest person to the action when filming - and your skill could have a real impact on the quality of the final recording. You are required to know what is going on around you such as preparation or changes for the next scene, as you may well need to relay this to the mixer who is just off the set. You have to be diplomatic as you may often hear things others cannot. You are also responsible for attaching radio mics to performers. Here, diplomacy, fresh breath and warm hands are required. You may find yourself needing to persuade an actor that you really do ned to shove both hands down the front of her blouse in order to attach a mic.
Boom Operating (within TV drama and feature films) is a professional grade and a valuable skill. With practice and talent you can become a vital member of the sound crew, and you often have to fill this role before being allowed/given a chance to progress to sound mixer.

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Glossary of audio terms commonly used in broadcasting

A

AMBIENT SOUND: Sound naturally occurring in any location. Even an empty, quiet room has its own special atmosphere because no space is truly silent - examples of ambient sound are traffic, hum from fridges or computers and are often recorded by sound recordists to use later as a ‘buzz track’.

AC: Alternating Current

ACOUSTICS: The behaviour of sound and its study. The acoustics of a room depend on its size and shape and the amount and position of sound-absorbing and reflecting material.

A/D CONVERTER: Circuit for converting analogue waveforms into a series of equally spaced numerical values represented by binary numbers. The more ‘bits’ a converter has, the greater the resolution of the sampling process.

ADR: Additional Dialogue Replacement, the act of changing the original location dialogue with a dialogue track recorded separately in a studio, and overlaid onto the picture. The enemy of the location sound recordist.

AES: Acronym for Audio Engineering Society, one of the industry’s professional audio associations.

AFL: After Fade listen; a system used within mixing consoles to allow specific signals to be monitored at the level set by their fader of level control knob. Aux sends are generally monitored AFL rather than PFL.

AMBIENCE: The portion of the sound that comes from the surrounding environment rather than directly from the sound source. The result of sound reflections in a confined space being added to the original sound.

AMP: (Ampere) Unit of electrical current.

AMPLIFIER: Sound equipment that converts the low voltage, low current signal from a tape deck, mixer etc. into a higher current signal suitable for driving speakers.

AMPLITUDE: The strength of a vibrating wave; in sound, the loudness of the sound. Another word for level. Can refer to sound levels or electrical signal levels.

ANALOGUE: Circuitry that uses a continually changing voltage or current to represent a signal. The origin of the term is that the electrical signal can be thought of as being ‘analogous’ to the original signal.

ASPECT RATIO: A term used to define the shape of the screen, presented in the form width:height. Older televisions have an aspect ratio of 4:3, British and many European widescreen films have an aspect ratio of 1.66:1, US and some European widescreen films have an aspect ratio of 1.85:1 and anamorphic widescreen films are usually 2.35:1. Widescreen televisions have an aspect ratio of 16:9 or 1.77:1, roughly halfway between the two standard widescreen ratios. Other aspect ratios are also occasionally used, though the ones cited above are the most common.

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR: The assistant director is primarily responsible for ensuring that everything runs smoothly during the shooting, that schedules are kept to and that everyone is where they’re supposed to be. On larger productions, there may be grades of assistant director - usually, the second AD is responsible for supervising principal cast while the third AD handles extras and other background artistes. And shouting at the sound mixer / sound recordist because they still have their headphones on.

ATTACK: The time taken for a sound to achieve maximum amplitude. Drums have a fast attack, whereas bowed strings have a slow attack. In compressors and gates, the attack time equates to how quickly the processor can change its gain.

ATTENUATOR (POTS): The electronic device under the faders that increases or reduces the strength of the signal running through it.

ATTENUATION: an electronic device that reduces the amplitude of a signal - eg attenuator switches can be found on microphones and mixers to allow a reduction of amplitude.

AUDIO FREQUENCY: Signals in the human audio range:nominally 20Hz to 20kHz.

AUX: Control on a mixing console designed to route a proportion of the channel signal to the effects or cue mix outputs (Aux Send).

AUX SEND: Physical output from a mixer Aux Send buss.

AUX RETURN: Mixer inputs used to add effects to the mix

AXIS: A line around which a device operates. Example: In a microphone, this would be an imaginary line coming out from the front of the microphone in the direction of the microphone polar pickup pattern eg cardioid. The main focus of many boom operators while shooting.

B

BAFFLES: Sound absorbing panels used to prevent sound waves from entering or leaving a certain space

BASS TIP-UP: An increase in the lower frequencies produced as a result of close micing.

BAND PASS FILTER (BPF): Filter that removes or attenuates frequencies above and below the frequency at which it is set. Frequencies within the band are emphasised. Bandpass filters are often used in synthesizers as tone shaping elements.

BALANCED LINE: Wiring system which uses two out-of-phase conductors and a common screen to reduce the effect of interference. For balancing to be effective, both the sending and receiving device must have balanced output and input stages respectively. A “balanced” connection is one that has three wires to move the signal. One is a ground, and the other two (called conductors) carry signals of equal value. This is why they are called balanced. Starquad cable is a commonly used balanced line in location sound recording.

BANDWIDTH: A means of specifying the range of frequencies passed by an electronic circuit such as an amplifier, mixer or filter. The frequency range is usually measured at the points where the level drops by 3dB relative to the maximum.

BI-DIRECTIONAL PATTERN: A microphone pick up pattern which has maximum pick up directly in front and directly in back of the diaphragm and least pick up at the sides.

BIT: Binary digit, which may either be 1 or 0. Many modern recording devices are between 16 and 24 bit.

BOOM: Extendable lightweight support pole for attaching a suspension device to hold the microphone. Principally used by the boom operator or sound recordist.

BOOM OPERATOR: The principal responsibility of the boom operator is mic placement, sometimes using a boom pole with a microphone attached to the end and sometimes, when the situation permits, using a Fisher boom - a larger mechanical device on wheels which allows operation at a much greater distance away from the actors. He or she will also place wireless microphones on actors when it is necessary. The boom operator must decide where to place the boom microphone based on a combination of factors, including the location and projection of any dialogue, the frame position of the camera, and any unwanted noise sources. Usually work as part of a team with a sound mixer and maybe a sound assistant / technician. Sound recordists often boom themselves whilst carrying the mixer in a harness.

BOUNDARY MIC:
A microphone mounted on a flat plate that acts as a reflective surface directing sound into the mic capsule. Used for general pick-up over a large area.

BPM: Beats Per Minute.

BUSS: A common electrical signal path along which signals may travel. In a mixer, there are several busses carrying the stereo mix, the groups, the PFL signal, the aux sends and so on. Power supplies are also fed along busses.

BYTE: A piece of digital data comprising eight bits.

C

CARDIOID: Meaning heart shaped, describes the polar response of a unidirectional microphone.

CAPACITOR: Electrical component exhibiting capacitance. Capacitor microphones are often abbreviated to capacitors.

CAPACITOR MICROPHONE: Microphone that operates on the principle of measuring the change in electrical charge across a capacitor where one of the electrodes is a thin conductive membrane that flexes in response to sound pressure. (see condenser mic)

CAPSULE: The variable capacitor section of a condenser microphone or in other types of microphones, the part of the microphone that includes the diaphragm and the active element.

CHANNEL: A single path that an audio signal travels or can travel through a device from an input to an output; most recording devices have at least two channels, with more modern devices often having 4. In two channel systems channel 1 is the left channel and channel 2 is the right channel.

CINEMATOGRAPHER: The person whose job it is to set up both camera and lighting for each shot in a moving image text. The cinematographer has perhaps paramount influence over the look or tone of a shot or scene, and is often held in as high esteem as the director. Cinematography is therefore the art of positioning a camera and lighting a scene.

CLIPPING: Severe form of distortion which occurs when a signal attempts to exceed the maximum level which a piece of equipment can handle. Distortion of a signal by its being chopped off. An overload problem caused by pushing an amplifier beyond its capabilities. A bad thing for a sound recordist to do.

CLOSE MICING: A technique of placing a microphone close to the sound source (within one foot) in order to pick up mainly the direct sound and to avoid picking up leakage or ambience.

COMPRESSOR: Device designed to reduce the dynamic range of audio signals by reducing the level of high signals or by increasing the level of low signals. Effect used to squash the sound together.

CONDENSER MIC: A microphone that uses the varying capacitance between two plates with a voltage applied across them to convert sound to electrical pulses. Condenser microphones need a power supply to provide the voltage across the plates, which may be provided by a battery within the case of the microphone, or it may be provided from an external phantom power supply. A condenser mic is more sensitive and has a faster reaction to percussive sounds than a Dynamic mic and produces a more even response.

COINCIDENT PAIR: Two microphones whose heads are placed as lose as possible to each other so that the path length from any sound source to either microphone is for all practical purposes, the same.

CROSSTALK: Leakage of an audio signal into a channel that iris not intended to be in, from an adjacent or nearby channel.

D

DAT: Digital Audio Tape. The commonly used DAT machines are more correctly known as R-DAT because they use a rotating head similar to a video recorder. Digital recorders using fixed or stationary heads (such as DCC) are known as S-DAT machines.

dB: deciBel. Unit used to express the relative levels of two electrical voltages, powers or sounds.

DC: Direct Current.

DE-ESSER: Device for reducing the effect of sibilance in vocal signals.

DECAY: The progressive reduction in amplitude of a sound or electrical signal over time.

DISTORTION: Usually undesirable result of overloading sound equipment. Reducing the levels can remedy the situation.

DIEGETIC SOUND: Sound indicated not only by what can be seen, or by sounds generated from on-screen actions and objects (e.g. footsteps, explosions), but also by off-screen sounds that belong to the world being depicted (e.g. birdsong, church bells). Non-diegetic sound is typically music or sound effects not generated in the filmic world but added to indicate characters’ state of mind or to generate audience response.

DIRECTOR: The person responsible for the physical creation of a film or television programme, who is often the final decision-maker with regard to creative matters.

DUBBING MIXER: Dubbing Mixers (also known as re-recording mixers - an americanism maybe?) work with all the sound elements; dialogue, automated dialogue replacement (ADR), foley, sound fx, atmospheres and music  to create the final soundtrack. They are primarily responsible for ensuring that film sound is correct both technically and stylistically, and use the location recordings made by the sound recordist on set.

DYNAMIC MICROPHONE: A type of microphone that works on the electric generator principle, where a diaphragm moves a coil of wire within a magnetic field. Robust microphone which picks up the sound on a diaphragm connected to a coil of wire which moves within a magnet. An alternating current is induced into the wire which provides the electrical output. Most dynamic mics have low output impedance of 200 Ohms.

DYNAMIC RANGE: The range in dB between the highest signal that can be handled by a piece of equipment and the level at which small signals disappear into the noise floor.

E

EARLY REFLECTIONS: The first sound reflections from walls, floors and ceilings following a sound created in an acoustically reflective environment.

EDITOR: On its most fundamental level, film editing is the art, technique, and practice of assembling shots into a coherent whole.

ELECTRET MICROPHONE: Type of capacitor microphone utilising a permanently charged capsule. A condenser microphone has a permanently polarized (charged) variable capacitor as its sound pressure level sensor.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION: The generation of electrical signal in a conductor moving in a magnetic field or being close to a changing magnetic field. Unbalanced cables can suffer additions and degradation to the signal as a result of induction, which is why balanced lines are used on set.

EQUALISER: Device for selectively cutting or boosting selected parts of the audio spectrum. Equalisation is he process of adjusting the tonal quality of a sound. A graphic equalizer provides adjustment for a wide range of frequency bands, and is normally inserted in the signal path after the mixing desk, before the amplifier.

EXCITER: An enhancer that works by synthesizing new high frequency harmonics.

EXPANDER: A device designed to decrease the level of low level signals and increase the level of high level signals, thus increasing the dynamic range of the signal.

F

FADER: Sliding potentiometer control used in mixers and other processors.

FIGURE-OF-EIGHT: Describes the polar response of a microphone that is equally sensitive both front and rear, yet rejects sounds coming from the sides.

FILTER: An electronic circuit designed to emphasize or attenuate a specific range of frequencies.

FISHPOLE: A handheld microphone boom

FOLDBACK: System for feeding one or more separate mixes to the performers for use while recording and overdubbing. Also known as a Cue mix.

FOLEY SOUND: Sounds recreated in a sound studio. The construction or approximation of sound effects using sources other than those represented on screen. Examples would include a knife piercing a watermelon to approximate a stabbing sound, or the use of coconut shells to approximate the sound of horses’ hooves. The Foley artist is the person responsible for sourcing and making these sounds.

FREQUENCY: Indication of how many cycles of a repetitive waveform occur in 1 second. A waveform which has a repetition cycle of once per second has a frequency of 1Hz (pronounced Hertz).

FREQUENCY RESPONSE: How sensitive an electronic device (mic, amplifier, speaker, etc.) is to various frequencies; often communicated with a graph.

FX: Effects.

G

GAFFER TAPE: Cloth tape specifically for use on film shoots, usually 2 inches wide in black or silver. A good friend of all the crew.

GAIN: The amount by which a circuit amplifies a signal.

GRIP: The crew member responsible for setting up dolly tracks and camera cranes, erecting scaffolding, moving props or scenery, or the adjustment or maintenance of any other production equipment on the set.

GUN MIC: Ultra-directional microphone useful for minimizing the intrusiveness of ambient sound and a main mic of choice for many location sound recordists.

H

HARD DISK: High capacity computer storage device based on a rotating rigid disk with a magnetic coating onto which data may be recorded.

HARMONIC DISTORTION: The addition of harmonics that were not present in the original signal.

HEADROOM: The safety margin in dBs between the highest peak signal being passed by a piece of equipment and the absolute maximum level the equipment can handle.

HIGH PASS FILTER (HPF): A filter which attenuates frequencies below its cutoff frequency.

HISS: Noise caused by random electrical fluctuations.

HUM: Signal contamination caused by the addition of low frequencies, usually related to the mains power frequency.

HYPERCARDIOID: A microphone pick up sensitivity pattern where the least sensitive pick up point is more than 90 degrees but less than 150 degrees off axis

Hz: Short for Hertz, the unit of frequency.

K

kHz: 1000Hz

L

LAVALIER MIC: a miniature type of microphone, usually omni-directional and wireless, and small enough to be taped or clipped to an actor, to record dialogue; aka lav or lapel microphones. Often not much liked by sound recordists but can be very useful for shots where booming is impossible or to close mic dialogue.

LEVEL: The amount of signal strength; the amplitude, especially the average amplitude.

LIMITER: Device that controls the gain of a signal so as to prevent it from ever exceeding a preset level. A limiter is essentially a fast acting compressor with an infinite compression ratio. It is often present on mixer hardware to prevent the location sound recordist / sound mixer overloading the signal. (see clipping and distortion).

LINE LEVEL: A nominal signal level which is around -10dBV for semi-pro equipment and +4dBu for professional equipment.

LIP-SYNC: Refers to synchronization between mouth movement and the words on the film’s soundtrack

LOCATION SOUND RECORDING: The fine art of recording sound on location including dialogue and fx. Practised by a sound recordist or a sound mixer.

LOW PASS FILTER (LPF): A filter which attenuates frequencies above its cutoff frequency.

LOW END: A slang term for bass-frequency signals (below 250 Hz).

M

mA: milliamp or one thousandth of an amp. See Amp.

MIC: An abbreviation for microphone.

MICROPHONE: Device for converting sound into electrical pulses which can then be amplified or recorded onto tape. Signals from a microphone are very low level and are amplified in the mixing desk to line level. See Dynamic Mic, Condenser Mic, Phantom Power, Pick-up, Radio Mic.

MIC LEVEL: The low level signal generated by a microphone. This must be amplified many times to increase it to line level.

MIC PAD: A device that reduces the level of the signal and is placed just before a microphone preamplifier to prevent overload of the preamplifier.

MIC PREAMP: An amplifier to boost the low-level audio signal out of a microphone up to line level.

MIDI: Musical Instrument Digital Interface.

MID SHOT: refers to a conventional camera shot filmed from a medium distance; although it is difficult to precisely define, it usually refers to a human figure from the waist (or knees) up; between a close shot and a long shot; abbreviated as m.s.

MIX: To blend audio signals together into a composite signal OR the signal made by blending individual signals together.

MIXER: A device which can combine several signals into one or more composite signals, in any desired proportion. One of the key pieces of equipment for a sound recordist.

MIXDOWN: The process during which a multitrack recording is balanced and transferred to two tracks (stereo) for playback or reproduction.

MONITOR: A reference loudspeaker used for mixing/the action of listening to a mix or a specific audio signal.

MONO: There is only one sound source or the signal was derived from one sound source.

MOVING COIL MIC: Similar to a dynamic microphone; a microphone in which the diaphragm moves a coil suspended in a magnetic field to generate an output voltage proportional to the sound pressure level.

MS STEREO: The mid-side (M-S) stereo recording technique puts the center of the soundstage (mid) in one channel and the side information in the other. These mid and side channels can be adjusted and reconfigured to accurately represent a conventional left and right stereo image (on their own, they do not give you a left/right image). The M-S technique gives you more control over the width of the stereo spread than other miking techniques

MULTITRACK: A recording device capable of recording several ‘parallel’ parts or tracks which may then be mixed or re-recorded independently.

N

NOISE REDUCTION: System for reducing analogue tape noise or for reducing the level of hiss present in a recording.

NOISE GATE: A piece of sound processing equipment that reduces background noise by muting a sound signal when it falls below a certain level, restoring it when the level increases again; also known as an Expander.

NOISE FLOOR: The level of the noise, in dB, below the signal.

NOTCH FILTER: A device that rejects signals that have frequencies within a narrow band of audio frequencies and passes all other signals.

NYQUIST THEOREM: The highest frequency that can be recorded and reproduced properly by a particular sampling rate (a frequency that is one-half the sampling rate)

O

OB - OUTSIDE BROADCAST: A broadcast made from outside a television studio, often live, usually by means of portable cameras linked to an Outside Broadcast van, which contains the necessary equipment for broadcasting them back to the production company. Typical OBs include sporting events and news reporting. The term is not generally used to describe location shooting for drama or comedy.

OCTAVE: When a frequency or pitch is transposed up by one octave, its frequency is doubled.

OFF AXIS/OFF MIC: Sound source that is not within the pickup pattern of the mic.

OHM: Unit of electrical resistance.

OMNI MIC: Meaning all, refers to a microphone that is equally sensitive in all directions.

OVERDUB: To add another part to a multitrack recording or to replace one of the existing parts.

P

PAD: Resistive circuit for reducing signal level.

PAN POT: Control enabling the user of a mixer to move the signal to any point in the stereo soundstage by varying the relative levels fed to the left and right stereo outputs.

PANNING - The process of distributing sound signals to different channels - panning left and right.

PARALLEL: A means of connecting two or more circuits together so that their inputs are connected together, and their outputs are all connected together.

PARAMETRIC EQ: An equaliser with separate controls for frequency, bandwidth and cut/boost.

PEAK: The highest signal level in any section of programme material.

PFL: Pre Fade Listen; a system used within a mixing console to allow the operator to listen in on a selected signal, regardless of the position of the fader controlling that signal.

PPM: Peak Programme Meter; a meter designed to register signal peaks rather than the average level.

PHANTOM POWER: 48V DC supply for capacitor microphones, transmitted along the signal cores of a balanced mic cable. Some condenser microphones require a power supply in order to operate. If this supply is not from a battery within the microphone body, it is known as a phantom power supply. It is usually 48 Volts DC but can sometimes be 12v.

PHASE: The amount by which one sine wave leads or lags a second wave of the same frequency. The difference is described by the term phase angle. Sine waves in phase reinforce each other; those out of phase cancel.

PHASING: An effects created by variable phase shift of an audio signal mixed with the direct signal.

POST PRODUCTION: Studio work done on location recordings after filming is complete.

POST-FADE: Aux signal taken from after the channel fader so that the aux send level follows any channel fader changes. Normally used for feeding effects devices.

POTENTIOMETER (POT): Act as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as a volume control of a radio.

PRE-FADE: Aux signal taken from before the channel fader so that the channel fader has no effect on the aux send level. Normally used for creating Foldback or Cue mixes.

PRESSURE GRADIENT MIC: A microphone whose diaphragm is exposed front and back and diaphragm movement is caused by the pressure difference between its front and back, usually bi-directional pickup.

PRODUCER: The person ultimately responsible for the creation of a film or programme. Usually involved right from the start, the producer will either devise or purchase the original idea, calculate the likely budget, pitch the idea to financiers to raise the money, hire the necessary creative personnel, supervise all stages of production and marketing, negotiate deals with prospective distributors or broadcasters and be the first point of contact for anyone interested in the production in question. Although often disparaged as being purely a business role, the best producers have considerable creative input as well.

PRO-TOOLS: A trade name of Digidesign for a hard disk digital audio recording system

PROXIMITY EFFECT:In directional microphones, the boost in the microphone’s output for bass frequencies as the mic is moved closer to the sound source.

PZM: Pressure Zone Microphone. A type of boundary microphone. Designed to reject out-of-phase sounds reflected from surfaces within the recording environment.

Q

QUANTIZATION: A method of converting analogue sound signals into a digital representation.

QUADROPHONIC: A sound system which uses four independent speakers (channels are designated as left front, left back, right front, and right back). The fore-runner of today’s Surround Sound.

R

RADIO MIC: Device consisting of a microphone head, transmitter pack with batteries, aerial and mains receiver unit which allows actors and singers to be amplified with no visible means of connection. Many moodern radios mics transmit an RF signal at UHF, but can also utilise VHF, FM, and IR. Many sound recordist do not like radio mics due to the vagaries of RF tranmission/reception and the effect of concealing a microphone on an actors/contributors clothing which may rustle etc.

REFERENCE TONE: A tone sent by mixers to allow calibration of signal level of associated equipment. Typically 1khz transmitted at -18 db fs and the sound that all sound recordists hear as they go to sleep at night.

RESISTANCE: Opposition to the flow of electrical current. Measured in Ohms.

REVERB: Acoustic ambience created by multiple reflections in a confined space.

RF: Radio Frequency.

RIBBON MICROPHONE: A microphone where the sound capturing element is a thin metal ribbon suspended in a magnetic filed. When sound causes the ribbon to vibrate, a small electrical current is generated within the ribbon.

ROLL-OFF: The rate at which a filter attenuates a signal once it has passed the filter cut-off point.

ROOM TONE:The background noise in a room without additional sound such as speaking - see Ambience.

RMS: (Root Mean Square) A method of specifying the behaviour of a piece of electrical equipment under continuous sine wave testing conditions.

S

SAMPLE RATE: The process carried out by an A/D converter where the instantaneous amplitude of a signal is measured many times per second (48kHz in the case of broadcast sound).

SHOCK MOUNT: An elastic mount for the microphone that reduces movement of the microphone it is moved - eg Rycote

SHOTGUN MIC: A microphone with a long line filter (a tube that acoustically cancels sound arriving from the side) to make the microphone pick up much better in one direction than in any other direction. The best friend of the location sound recordist.

SIGNAL: Electrical representation of input such as sound.

SIGNAL PATH Route taken by a signal from the input to a system to the output.

SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO: The ratio of maximum signal level to the residual noise, expressed in dBs.

SLATE: The voice recorded onto the beginning of a master tape to identify the tune and take, or the action of making it.

SMPTE: Time code developed for the film industry but now extensively used in music and recording. SMPTE is a real-time code and is related to hours, minutes, seconds and film or video frames rather than to musical tempo.

SOUND PERSPECTIVE: Apparent distance of sound source from the microphone. Clip-on mics, for instance, give no change of perspective when characters move or turn because they remain in a fixed relationship to the wearer; a key consideration for the sound recordist / sound mixer.

S/PDIF — Acronym for “Sony/Philips Digital Inter Face” - an unbalanced line for home use.

STEREO: A recording or reproduction of at least two channels where positioning of instrument sounds left to right can be perceived.

STRIPE: To record time code onto one track of a multitrack tape machine.

SURROUND SOUND: A technique of recording and playback of sound used in film where the sound has a front to back quality as well as side to side perspective.

SYNC SOUND: A film or television soundtrack that is specifically timed to suit the images, so that dialogue fits the appropriate lip movements and sound effects match what can be seen on screen. In order to achieve this, the soundtrack is recorded at the same time as the images in such a way that picture and sound can easily be matched up during editing, and devices such as digislates, clapper boards, timecode and lockit boxes are used to achieve this.

T

TIMBRE: The tonal ‘colour’ of a sound.

TIMECODE: Short for SMPTE Time Code (a standardized timing and sync signal specified by the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers).

TONE: Sound generated at various frequencies to align a tape machine or for other testing purposes. Typically 1khz at -18db fs.

U

UNBALANCED: A 2-wire electrical signal connection where the inner or hot or +ve (positive) conductor is usually surrounded by the cold or -ve (negative) conductor, which forms a screen against electrical interference.

V

VOICEOVER: The recording of vocal announcements over a bed of other sounds and picture.

VOX POP: Technique used typically in news and current affairs, but also in other types of non-fiction broadcasting, in which a sample of people are approached on the street, more or less at random, and asked their views on a given issue.

VU METER: Meter designed to interpret signal levels in roughly the same way as the human ear, which responds more closely to the average levels of sounds rather than to the peak levels.

W

WATT: Unit of electrical power.

WAVEFORM: A graphic representation of the way in which a sound wave or electrical wave varies with time.

WHITE NOISE: A random signal with an energy distribution that produces the same amount of noise power per Hz.

WILDTRACK: A sound track shot alone and with no synchronous picture, wildtracks are often used by post-production sound.

X

XLR: Type of connector commonly used to carry balanced audio signals including the feeds from microphones, 3 pin for mono, 5 pin for stereo. See balanced line. The UK standard for wiring the 3 pin connector is as follows: Pin 1 (Screen), Pin 2 (+ve / “hot”), Pin 3 (-ve, “cold”). (Xternal, Live, Return).

Y

Y-Lead: Lead split so that one source can feed two destinations. Y leads may also be used in console insert points in which case a stereo jack plug at one end of the lead is split into two monos at the other.

Z

ZERO DB: The common reference point when discussing sound levels. Levels above 0 dB are expressed as positive (+5dB) and those below as negative (-20dB).

— Posted by Matt in Careers in Sound, Glossary, Kit, Work | No Comments